Traveling extensively throughout Greece during his lifetime, Protagoras was born in Abdera, Thrace around 490 B.C.E. and passed away around 420 B.C.E. It is widely believed that Protagoras spent a significant amount of time in Athens during his travels, but as a Sophist, he likely journeyed throughout Greece to engage with unique students.
Before delving into Protagoras, it is important to note a few cautions. We have limited sources available, and his historical context greatly influences the interpretation of his work.
Limited Sources
Similar to many other Pre-Socratic philosophers, there are few remaining sources on Protagoras. Our main sources come from Plato, Diogenes Laertius, and Sextus Empiricus. However, the latter two historians lived several centuries after Protagoras’ death, raising questions about the reliability of their sources. On the other hand, we heavily rely on Diogenes for accounts of the Pre-Socratics.
Sophism and Its Historical Context
In the 5th century B.C.E., the term “Sophists” referred to individuals who were renowned for their wisdom or those who professionally taught students.
The “Older” Sophists, including Protagoras, Prodicus, Gorgias, Euthydemus, Thrasymachus, and Hippias, were characterized by their epistemological and moral relativism, theological agnosticism, and persuasive rhetoric. We can learn much about these philosophers from Plato’s dialogue “Protagoras.”
However, by the 4th century B.C.E., sophistry had acquired a negative connotation similar to that of present-day lawyers. Since the sophists excelled in public speaking, the Greeks often sought their services for legal representation.
Due to their exceptional skills in rhetoric, it is evident how influential they were in the legal system. At times, they would argue for both justice and injustice, and their inconsistent sense of justice contributed to their negative reputation. In fact, the term “sophistry” today is associated with “deception” or “deceptive arguments.”
The Three Major Themes in Protagoras’ Works
- The study of using words accurately, or orthoepeia. Some later sources refer to Protagoras as the first formal grammarian, which aligns with our contemporary understanding of syntax. In Plato’s “Protagoras,” the titular character reads a poem and attempts to interpret it by comparing the author’s intention with the literal words used, a common practice in a courtroom.
- Man as the measure of all things. Protagoras famously wrote, “Of all things, the measure is man, of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not” (Protagoras, DK80b1). Let’s consider a thought experiment:
Imagine a scenario where there is a house at room temperature, situated in the cool state of Tennessee. Jane and Wendy, who are relatives, are visiting.
Jane insists that it feels cold inside the house, while Wendy disagrees. Wendy hails from Northern Canada, a region known for its extreme cold, and Jane comes from a hot area near the Equator in North Brazil. Who can accurately describe their physical state or perceptions better than the individuals experiencing them?
Protagoras argued that neither woman could be proven wrong. While this example may seem trivial, the philosophical implications, particularly the idea that absolute Truth gives way to relativism, left a profound impact on the Ancient Greeks. In essence, Protagoras pioneered a philosophical framework of moral and epistemological relativism.
Agnosticism: Do the gods exist? Protagoras was uncertain. The Sophists, as a collective, ridiculed the mythical tales of the Greek gods, primarily due to their immoral and questionable actions.
However, Protagoras himself was not inherently immoral. In fact, Plato portrayed Protagoras as a virtuous and upright individual. Protagoras simply stated, “Regarding the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or what they are like. Many factors hinder knowledge, including the obscure nature of the subject and the brevity of human existence” (Protagoras, DK 80 B4).
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While Protagoras did not leave a specific legacy in the annals of Western history, the Sophists, as a whole, had a profound impact on the development of philosophy. Through their teachings, the focus of Greek philosophy shifted from the study of the natural “sciences” to human thinking and reasoning. Plato countered the relativism of the Sophists by anchoring absolute Truth in his theory of the World of Forms. Moreover, the Sophists laid the groundwork for the earliest forms of subjectivity and relativism.
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